Cambodia Population

Background

Most Cambodians consider themselves to be Khmers, descendants of the Angkor Empire that extended over much of Southeast Asia and reached its zenith between the 10th and 13th centuries. Attacks by the Thai and Cham (from present-day Vietnam) weakened the empire, ushering in a long period of decline. The king placed the country under French protection in 1863 and it became part of French Indochina in 1887. Following Japanese occupation in World War II, Cambodia gained full independence from France in 1953. In April 1975, after a five-year struggle, Communist Khmer Rouge forces captured Phnom Penh and evacuated all cities and towns. At least 1.5 million Cambodians died from execution, forced hardships, or starvation during the Khmer Rouge regime under POL POT. A December 1978 Vietnamese invasion drove the Khmer Rouge into the countryside, began a 10-year Vietnamese occupation, and touched off almost 13 years of civil war. The 1991 Paris Peace Accords mandated democratic elections and a ceasefire, which was not fully respected by the Khmer Rouge. UN-sponsored elections in 1993 helped restore some semblance of normalcy under a coalition government. Factional fighting in 1997 ended the first coalition government, but a second round of national elections in 1998 led to the formation of another coalition government and renewed political stability. The remaining elements of the Khmer Rouge surrendered in early 1999. Some of the surviving Khmer Rouge leaders are awaiting trial by a UN-sponsored tribunal for crimes against humanity. Elections in July 2003 were relatively peaceful, but it took one year of negotiations between contending political parties before a coalition government was formed. In October 2004, King Norodom SIHANOUK abdicated the throne and his son, Prince Norodom SIHAMONI, was selected to succeed him. Local elections were held in Cambodia in April 2007, and there was little in the way of pre-election violence that preceded prior elections. National elections in July 2008 were relatively peaceful.

* Geography
* People
* Government
* Economy
* Communications
* Transportation
* Military
Geography

A land of paddies and forests dominated by the Mekong River and Tonle Sap.
Location: Southeastern Asia, bordering the Gulf of Thailand, between Thailand, Vietnam, and Laos
Geographic coordinates: 13 00 N, 105 00 E
Area:
total: 181,040 sq km
land: 176,520 sq km
water: 4,520 sq km
Size comparison: slightly smaller than Oklahoma
Land Boun:
daries total:2,572 km
border countries: Laos 541 km, Thailand 803 km, Vietnam 1,228 km
Coastline: 443 km
Maritime claims:
territorial sea: 12 nm
contiguous zone: 24 nm
exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
continental shelf: 200 nm
Climate: tropical; rainy, monsoon season (May to November); dry season (December to April); little seasonal temperature variation
Terrain: mostly low, flat plains; mountains in southwest and north
Elevation extremes:
lowest point: Gulf of Thailand 0 m
highest point: Phnum Aoral 1,810 m
Natural resources: oil and gas, timber, gemstones, iron ore, manganese, phosphates, hydropower potential Land use:
arable land: 20.44%
permanent crops: 0.59%
other: 78.97% (2005)
Irrigated land: 2,700 sq km (2003)
Natural hazards: monsoonal rains (June to November); flooding; occasional droughts
Current Environment Issues: illegal logging activities throughout the country and strip mining for gems in the western region along the border with Thailand have resulted in habitat loss and declining biodiversity (in particular, destruction of mangrove swamps threatens natural fisheries); soil erosion; in rural areas, most of the population does not have access to potable water; declining fish stocks because of illegal fishing and overfishing
International Environment Agreements:
party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling
signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea

People

Population: 14,494,293
note: estimates for this country take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality, higher death rates, lower population growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2009 est.)
Age structure:
0-14 years: 32.6% (male 2,388,922/female 2,336,439)
15-64 years: 63.8% (male 4,498,568/female 4,743,677)
65 years and over: 3.6% (male 197,649/female 329,038) (2009 est.)
Median age:
total: 22.1 years
male: 21.4 years female: 22.8 years (2008 est.)
Population growth rate: 1.765% (2009 est.)
Birth rate: 25.68 births/1,000 population (2008 est.)
Death rate: 8.16 deaths/1,000 population (2008 est.)
Net migration rate: NA (2009 est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.04 male(s)/female
under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 0.95 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.6 male(s)/female
total population: 0.96 male(s)/female (2009 est.)
Infant mortality rate:
total: 54.79 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 61.84 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 47.42 deaths/1,000 live births (2009 est.)
Life expectancy at birth:
total population: 62.1 years
male: 60.03 years
female: 64.27 years (2009 est.)
Total fertility rate: 3.04 children born/woman (2009 est.)
HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate: 0.8% (2007 est.)
HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS: 75,000 (2007 est.)
HIV/AIDS - deaths: 6,900 (2007 est.)
Nationality:
noun: Cambodian(s)
adjective: Cambodian
Ethnic groups: Khmer 90%, Vietnamese 5%, Chinese 1%, other 4%
Religions: Theravada Buddhist 95%, other 5% Languages: Khmer (official) 95%, French, English Literacy:
definition: age 15 and over can read and write
total population: 73.6%
male: 84.7%
female: 64.1% (2004 est.)

Government
Country name:
conventional long form: Kingdom of Cambodia
conventional short form: Cambodia
local long form: Preahreacheanachakr Kampuchea (phonetic pronunciation)
local short form: Kampuchea
former: Khmer Republic, Democratic Kampuchea, People's Republic of Kampuchea, State of Cambodia
Government type: multiparty democracy under a constitutional monarchy
Capital:
name: Phnom Penh
geographic coordinates: 11 33 N, 104 55 E
time difference: UTC+7 (12 hours ahead of Washington, DC during Standard Time)
Administrative divisions: 20 provinces (khaitt, singular and plural) and 4 municipalities* (krong, singular and plural)
provinces: Banteay Mean Cheay, Batdambang, Kampong Cham, Kampong Chhnang, Kampong Spoe, Kampong Thum, Kampot, Kandal, Kaoh Kong, Krachen, Mondol Kiri, Otdar Mean Cheay, Pouthisat, Preah Vihear, Prey Veng, Rotanah Kiri, Siem Reab, Stoeng Treng, Svay Rieng, Takev
municipalities: Keb, Pailin, Phnum Penh (Phnom Penh), Preah Seihanu (Sihanoukville)
Independence: 9 November 1953 (from France)
National holiday: Independence Day, 9 November (1953)
Constitution: promulgated 21 September 1993
Legal system: primarily a civil law mixture of French-influenced codes from the United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) period, royal decrees, and acts of the legislature, with influences of customary law and remnants of communist legal theory; increasing influence of common law; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
Executive branch:
chief of state: King Norodom SIHAMONI (since 29 October 2004)
head of government: Prime Minister HUN SEN (since 14 January 1985) [co-prime minister from 1993 to 1997]; Permanent Deputy Prime Minister MEN SAM AN (since 25 September 2008); Deputy Prime Ministers SAR KHENG (since 3 February 1992); SOK AN, TEA BANH, HOR NAMHONG, NHEK BUNCHHAY (since 16 July 2004); BIN CHHIN (since 5 September 2007); KEAT CHHON, YIM CHHAI LY (since 24 September 2008); KE KIMYAN (since 12 March 2009)
cabinet: Council of Ministers named by the prime minister and appointed by the monarch
elections: the king is chosen by a Royal Throne Council from among all eligible males of royal descent; following legislative elections, a member of the majority party or majority coalition is named prime minister by the Chairman of the National Assembly and appointed by the king
Legislative branch: bicameral, consists of the National Assembly (123 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms) and the Senate (61 seats; 2 members appointed by the monarch, 2 elected by the National Assembly, and 57 elected by parliamentarians and commune councils; members serve five-year terms)
elections: National Assembly - last held 27 July 2008 (next to be held in July 2013); Senate - last held 22 January 2006 (next to be held in January 2011)
election results: National Assembly - percent of vote by party - CPP 58%, SRP 22%, HRP 7%; NRP 6%; FUNCINPEC 5%; others 2%; seats by party - CPP 90, SRP 26, HRP 3, FUNCINPEC 2, NRP 2; Senate - percent of vote by party - CPP 69%, FUNCINPEC 21%, SRP 10%; seats by party - CPP 45, FUNCINPEC 10, SRP 2
Judicial branch: Supreme Council of the Magistracy (provided for in the constitution and formed in December 1997); Supreme Court (and lower courts) exercises judicial authority
Political parties and leaders: Cambodian People's Party or CPP [CHEA SIM]; Human Rights Party or HRP [KHEM SOKHA, also spelled KEM SOKHA]; National United Front for an Independent, Neutral, Peaceful, and Cooperative Cambodia or FUNCINPEC [KEV PUT REAKSMEI]; Norodom Ranariddh Party or NRP [CHHIM SEAK LENG]; Sam Rangsi Party or SRP [SAM RANGSI, also spelled SAM RAINSY]
Political pressure groups and leaders: Cambodian Freedom Fighters or CFF; Partnership for Transparency Fund or PTF (anti-corruption organization); Students Movement for Democracy; The Committee for Free and Fair Elections or Comfrel
other: human rights organizations; vendors
International organization participation: ACCT, ADB, APT, ARF, ASEAN, EAS, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO (subscriber), ITU, MIGA, NAM, OIF, OPCW, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNMIS, UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO
Diplomatic representation in the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador HENG HEM
chancery: 4530 16th Street NW, Washington, DC 20011
telephone: (202) 726-7742
FAX: (202) 726-8381
Diplomatic representation from the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador Carol A. RODLEY
embassy: #1, Street 96, Sangkat Wat Phnom, Khan Daun Penh, Phnom Penh
mailing address: Box P, APO AP 96546
telephone: [855] (23) 728-000
FAX: [855] (23) 728-600

Economy

From 2004 to 2008, the economy grew about 10% per year, driven largely by an expansion in the garment sector, construction, agriculture, and tourism. With the January 2005 expiration of a WTO Agreement on Textiles and Clothing, Cambodian textile producers were forced to compete directly with lower-priced countries such as China, India, Vietnam, and Bangladesh. The garment industry currently employs more than 320,000 people and contributes more than 85% of Cambodia's exports. In 2005, exploitable oil and natural gas deposits were found beneath Cambodia's territorial waters, representing a new revenue stream for the government if commercial extraction begins. Mining also is attracting significant investor interest, particularly in the northern parts of the country, and the government has said opportunities exist for mining bauxite, gold, iron and gems. In 2006, a US-Cambodia bilateral Trade and Investment Framework Agreement (TIFA) was signed and several rounds of discussions have been held since 2007. The tourism industry has continued to grow rapidly, with foreign arrivals exceeding 2 million per year in 2007-08, however, economic troubles abroad will dampen growth in 2009. Rubber exports declined more than 15% in 2008 due to falling world market prices. The global financial crisis is weakening demand for Cambodian exports, and construction is declining due to a shortage of credit. The long-term development of the economy remains a daunting challenge. The Cambodian government is working with bilateral and multilateral donors, including the World Bank and IMF, to address the country's many pressing needs. The major economic challenge for Cambodia over the next decade will be fashioning an economic environment in which the private sector can create enough jobs to handle Cambodia's demographic imbalance. More than 50% of the population is less than 21 years old. The population lacks education and productive skills, particularly in the poverty-ridden countryside, which suffers from an almost total lack of basic infrastructure.
GDP (purchasing power parity): $27.95 billion (2008 est.) $26.62 billion (2007) $24.15 billion (2006)
GDP (official exchange rate): $10.3 billion (2008 est.)
GDP - real growth rate: 6.8% (2008 est.)
GDP - per capita (PPP): $2,000 (2008 est.)
GDP - composition by sector:
agriculture: 29%
industry: 30%
services: 41% (2007 est.)
Labor force: 8.6 million (2008 est.)
Labor force - by occupation:
agriculture: 75%
industry: NA%
services: NA% (2004 est.)
Unemployment rate: 3.5% (2007 est.)
Population below poverty line: 35% (2004)
Household income or consumption by percentage share:
lowest 10%: 2.9%
highest 10%: 34.8% (2004)
Distribution of family income - Gini index: 43 (2007 est.)
Inflation rate (consumer prices): 20.2% (2008 est.)
Investment (gross fixed): 21.3% of GDP (2008 est.)
Budget: revenues: $1.264 billion
expenditures: $1.478 billion (2008 est.)
Agriculture - products: rice, rubber, corn, vegetables, cashews, tapioca, silk
Industries: tourism, garments, construction, rice milling, fishing, wood and wood products, rubber, cement, gem mining, textiles
Industrial production growth rate: 8.4% (2008 est.)
Electricity - production: 1.163 billion kWh (2006 est.)
Electricity - consumption: 1.178 billion kWh (2006 est.)
Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (2007 est.)
Electricity - imports: 110 million kWh (2006 est.)
Oil - production: 0 bbl/day (2007 est.)
Oil - consumption: 3,736 bbl/day (2006 est.)
Oil - exports: 0 bbl/day (2005)
Oil - imports: 3,618 bbl/day (2005)
Oil - proved reserves: 0 bbl (1 January 2006 est.)
Natural gas - production: 0 cu m (2007 est.)
Natural gas - consumption: 0 cu m (2007 est.)
Natural gas - exports: 0 cu m (2007 est.)
Natural gas - imports: 0 cu m (2007 est.)
Natural gas - proved reserves: 0 cu m (1 January 2006 est.)
Current account balance: -$1.27 billion (2008 est.)
Exports: $4.616 billion f.o.b. (2008 est.)
Exports - commodities: clothing, timber, rubber, rice, fish, tobacco, footwear
Exports - partners: US 58.1%, Germany 7.3%, UK 5.2%, Canada 4.6%, Vietnam 4.5% (2007)
Imports: $6.424 billion f.o.b. (2008 est.)
Imports - commodities: petroleum products, cigarettes, gold, construction materials, machinery, motor vehicles, pharmaceutical products
Imports - partners: Thailand 23.1%, Vietnam 16.9%, China 15%, Hong Kong 10.4%, Singapore 7.5%, Taiwan 7.2%, South Korea 4.8% (2007)
Reserves of foreign exchange and gold: $2.375 billion (31 December 2008 est.)
Debt - external: $4.317 billion (31 December 2008 est.)
Market value of publicly traded shares: $NA
Currency (code): riel (KHR)
Exchange rates: riels (KHR) per US dollar - 4,070.94 (2008 est.), 4,006 (2007), 4,103 (2006), 4,092.5 (2005), 4,016.25 (2004)
Fiscal year: calendar year

Communications

Telephones in use: 37,500 (2007)
Cellular Phones in use: 2.583 million (2007)
Telephone system:
general assessment: mobile-phone systems are widely used in urban areas to bypass deficiencies in the fixed-line network; fixed-line connections stand at well less than 1 per 100 persons; mobile-cellular usage, aided by increasing competition among service providers, is increasing and stands at nearly 20 per 100 persons
domestic: adequate landline and/or cellular service in Phnom Penh and other provincial cities; mobile-phone coverage is rapidly expanding in rural areas
international: country code - 855; adequate but expensive landline and cellular service available to all countries from Phnom Penh and major provincial cities; satellite earth station - 1 Intersputnik (Indian Ocean region) (2007)
Radio broadcast stations: AM 1, FM 50, shortwave NA (2008)
Television broadcast stations: 8 (including 2 TV relay stations with French and Vietnamese broadcasts); excludes 18 regional relay stations (2008)
Internet country code: .kh
Internet hosts: 1,230 (2008)
Internet users: 70,000 (2007)

Transportation
Airports: 17 (2007)
Airports (paved runways):
total: 6
2,438 to 3,047 m: 2
1,524 to 2,437 m: 2
914 to 1,523 m: 2 (2007)
Airports (unpaved runways):
total: 11
1,524 to 2,437 m: 1
914 to 1,523 m: 9
under 914 m: 1 (2007)
Heliports: 1 (2007)
Railways:
total: 602 km
narrow gauge: 602 km 1.000-m gauge (2006)
Roadways:
total: 38,257 km
paved: 2,406 km
unpaved: 35,851 km (2004)
Waterways: 2,400 km (mainly on Mekong River) (2008)
Merchant marine:
total: 626
by type: bulk carrier 41, cargo 530, carrier 3, chemical tanker 10, container 8, passenger/cargo 6, petroleum tanker 11, refrigerated cargo 15, roll on/roll off 1, vehicle carrier 1
foreign-owned: 467 (Canada 2, China 193, Cyprus 7, Egypt 13, Gabon 1, Greece 3, Hong Kong 8, Indonesia 2, Japan 1, South Korea 22, Latvia 1, Lebanon 8, Netherlands 1, Romania 1, Russia 83, Singapore 4, Syria 48, Taiwan 1, Turkey 26, Ukraine 34, UAE 2, US 6) (2008)
Ports and terminals: Phnom Penh, Kampong Saom (Sihanoukville).

Military

Military branches: Royal Cambodian Armed Forces: Royal Cambodian Army, Royal Khmer Navy, Royal Cambodian Air Force (2009)
Military service age and obligation: conscription law of October 2006 requires all males between 18-30 to register for military service; 18-month service obligation (2006)
Manpower available for military service:
males age 16-49: 3,759,034
females age 16-49: 3,784,333 (2008 est.)
Manpower fit for military service:
males age 16-49: 2,673,383
females age 16-49: 2,763,256 (2009 est.)

Khmer Inscription and Language

The earliest written language to have been found in the region is in Sanskrit, an Indian sacred language. The writings were carved in stones which could be dated back to 5th and 6th century, which show a strong influence of the Indian culture over the indigenous people.

Sometimes later, the Khmer Language seems to appear with many of its characters and words derived from Sanskrit. An oldest stone inscription written in Khmer language were found to be carved in 612 A.D. as its text said.

The contents of these stone inscriptions which were housed in the temples were mostly concern with religions, its ritual and philosophy, Indian epics of Ramayana and Mahabharata, Kings' salutations and some poetic verses. Some of these stone inscriptions also list the assets which were owned by the temples and by the dignitaries as well as the different objects needed for ritual ceremonies. Although these assets and objects had long been disappeared, these listings served as another jigsaw in our quest for knowledge of the Angkor. Little things had been said about the ordinary life of the local people, however, these stone inscriptions had helped us to retrace the history of Khmer and to understand its political and cultural structure.

Around 1,200 stone inscriptions written in Sanskrit and Khmer had been discovered.

The inscriptions were careful engraved on the stone with a great work of real arts in order to show high respects to the gods of the temples. This could lead us to imagine that the Khmers were devout to their gods in whom they revered as their protector, and god's blessing would bring them prosperity.

Many Angkor temples had been found to contain the stone inscriptions in both languages - Sanskrit and Khmer, however, their contents could be differentiated into two distinct characteristics although both of them served for a religious purpose. Those inscriptions written in Sanskrit addressed more or less directly to the gods in term of religious prayers and rituals. Sanskrit is the sacred language of India and was maintained in the original form by the Khmers so that its value to their gods would not be deviated by any form of translation.

Generally, the Khmer inscription had its own distinction and the content was mostly a listing of assets, covering from paddy fields, cattle, objects and furniture, as well as the names of slaves which were owned by the temples. In many instances, some of the stone inscriptions were placed in the shrine by donors who could be the dignitaries or the elites of Khmer ruling class. These inscriptions could be varied, ranging from the listing of assets to some poetic verses.

According to Zhou Daguan in the Chinese annals, the ancient Khmers knew how to write on the latina leaves as well as by chalks on the animal's skin. Unfortunately, these materials seem to have been decayed over the past centuries due to damp weathers and insects.

It is hard to believe that such a high civilization of Khmer with a well-developed writing system would barely have any literature. Only three Khmer literatures are known since they were preserved in the stone inscription. Many literatures and other Khmer manuscripts, being written on unendurable materials other than on stone, are believed to have been lost with time, and some may have been survived until present day as local folklores.

Khmer alphabet

Origin

The Khmer alphabet is descended from the Brahmi script of ancient India by way of the Pallava script, which was used in southern India and South East Asia during the 5th and 6th Centuries AD. The oldest dated inscription in Khmer, found at Angkor Borei in Takev Province south of Phnom Penh, dates from 611 AD.

The Khmer alphabet closely resembles the Thai and Lao alphabets, which were developed from it.

No table features

* This is syllabic alphabet in which each consonant has two forms, one with an inherent /a/ (first series) and one with an inherent /o/ (second series)

* Vowels are indicated using either separate letters or diacritics, which written above, below, in front of, after or around consonants. The pronunciation of the vowels depends on whether a consonant they are attached to is of the first or second series.
* All consonants have a subscript form which is used to write the second consonant of a cluster.
* In a Khmer text there are no spaces between words, instead spaces indicate the end of a clause or sentence.
* Inspite of efforts to standardise written Khmer, many words have more than one accepted spelling.

Used to write:

Khmer (Cambodian), a member of the Mon-Khmer group of Austro-Asiatic languages, spoken by about 8 million people in Cambodia, Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, China, France and the USA. Khmer shares many features and much vocabulary with Thai as a result of centuries of two-way borrowing. There are also borrowings from Sanskrit, Pali, French and Chinese in Khmer.

Khmer alphabet Consonants


Subscript consonants


Inpedendent vowels


Khmer vowel diacritics

Numerals



Example text


Translation

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

Architecture - Khmer

The house of the local people in ancient Khmer was more or less similar to those found today in villages of modern Cambodia. It was elevated about two and a half meters above the ground with the wooden ladder and was built by wooden piles which supported the floor, the walls and the roof. The wall was made up of either the straws or the bamboo with the roof covered with the thatched leaves of dry coconut palms.

The architecture of the dignitaries' houses and the palaces was somewhat different from those of the laymen, and differed in sizes, layouts and dimensions. The materials used to built the house consisted of stronger wooden planks, generally made up of teakwood, and the roof was covered with tiles for the inner rooms and with thatched leaves for the outer corners. These differences clearly identified the classes of the people by which the laymen were not even dare to put up a single tile on their roof.



According to Hinduism, the gods reside in the five sacred mountains with central Mount Meru and these mountains are surrounded by the cosmic ocean. The structure of the Khmer temples mostly symbolizes the heavenly residence of the gods with five towers, called prasats. The central dominant tower or prasat represents the Mount Meru with four smaller ones, each at its corners, to represent the other four sacred mountains of the heaven. In some temples, there are galleries connecting the towers. The moat surrounding the temple symbolizes the cosmic ocean.

As the residence of gods, the temples were made up of more endurable materials such as the bricks, laterites and sandstones. Numerous stones were carved with artistic craftsmanship to portray the gods and the deities, the epics of Mahabharata and Ramayana, and in many instances, the important events of Khmer history as well as that of the king who was its founder. For the temples dedicated to Buddhism in the later centuries, the architecture is much less prominent with some stone carving related to the stories of Lord Buddha and his teaching.

In addition to the remarkable temples, the ancient Khmer also had showed its architectural genius by building large reservoirs and dikes which were essential in agriculture as well as for the survival of the people. The two largest reservoirs were the East Baray and the West Baray. The former one, built during the reign of Yasovarman I, was 7 1/2 kilometer long and 1 km 830 meters wide with the depth of 4-5 meter and holds up to 55 million cubic meters of water. The latter was almost twice larger, covering the area of 1,760 hectares with the depth of 7 meters and hold over 123 million cubic meters of water. These reservoirs collected the water from the nearby rivers through dikes and help significantly to prevent floods by collecting water from heavy rainfall during the Monsoon season. There were also smaller reservoirs, many ponds and moats which were constructed in the vicinity of the various temples, and thus further helped in water storage. This water was used in everyday life of the Khmer people, and irrigated to the farmland during the dry season. The Angkor Empire was therefore able to cultivate crops and rice two to three times in a year, resulting in its prosperity.

The extensive road system of the ancient Khmer enable us to draw a virtual map of the Angkor Empire during its peak. These roads were built by raising the earth as the pavement, however, most parts of these roads were lost but some vestiges remain. The Angkor being at the center of the civilization had its roads branching out in all directions. The northern route passes through Buriram and Phimai which are now in Thailand and divide into two branches, one to Vientiane, the modern Laos capital and another to Srisatchanalai and Sukhothai, the first capital of Thailand, while the southern one leads to Phnompenh and ends at Oc Eo in Mekong Delta of Vietnam. The eastern route heads to Kompong Cham until present-day Hochiminh City in South Vietnam where it curves northward along the coast up as far as Hue in Central Vietnam. The western route runs through Aranyapathet in modern Thailand until Chao Phya River Basin where Ayuthaya and Lopburi resides before extending westward until Maung Singh in Kanchanaburi near the Burma border.

Cambodia Nature

The Nature of Cambodia
Cambodia, country in Southeast Asia, is rich in natural and cultural resources which has been considered as the great potential for tourism and economy development. Cambodia covers an area of 181,035 sq km (69,898 sq mi). Most of the country consists of a low-lying alluvial plain that occupies the central part of the country. To the southeast of the plain lies the delta of the Mekong River. To the east of the plain, ranges of undulating hills separate Cambodia from Vietnam. To the southwest a mountain range, the Chuŏr Phnum Krâvanh, fringes the plain and forms a physical barrier along the country’s coast. Cambodia’s highest peak, Phnom Aural (1,813 m/5,948 ft) rises in the eastern part of this range. To the north, the Chuŏr Phnum Dângrêk mountains separate Cambodia from Thailand.

Rivers and Lakes
There are two big river in Cambodia. One is the most important river is the one Mekong River and Tonle Sap Great Lake:

* Tônlé Sap (Great Lake), is the largest in Southeast Asia. From the northwest, the Tônlé Sap drains into the Mekong via the Tônlé Sab River, entering the Mekong at Phnom Penh. Each year during the monsoon season (approximately May to October), the waters of the Mekong increase and reverse the flow of the Tônlé Sab, which begins to drain into the lake. The lake then expands dramatically, flooding the provinces along its banks. When dry weather returns, the river reverses its course again and flows back into the Mekong, draining the northwestern provinces. At the height of the flooding, the Tônlé Sap reaches more than 10,000 sq km (4,000 sq mi), or about four times its size in the dry season. The lake is one of the richest sources of freshwater fish in the world.
* Tonle Mekong: the longest river in Southeast Asia and the tenth largest in the world. The Mekong flows from north to south through Cambodia and is navigable for much of its course. Mekong River is about 500km. Other rivers in the country include the Tonle Srepok and the Tônlé Sab. Cambodia’s principal lake.


Natural Resources
Cambodia’s total land area, only 21 percent is cultivated. Areas surrounding the Mekong and the Tônlé Sap are the most fertile regions. The country's once-ample timber resources have been poorly managed and are being rapidly depleted by local and foreign entrepreneurs. Although Cambodia is not rich in mineral resources, Battambang province in northwestern Cambodia contains limited quantities of zircons, sapphires, and rubies. The central part of the country contains commercial deposits of salt, manganese, and phosphate. The Gulf of Thailand is thought to contain petroleum deposits, but the extent and accessibility of the reserves have yet to be determined.

Climate
The country enjoy tropical climate with warm and humid temperature. In the monsoon season, abundant rain allows for the cultivation of a wide variety of crops. This year-round tropical climate makes Cambodia ideal for developing tourism. Travelers need not to fear natural disasters such as erupting volcanoes or earthquakes, and the country is not directly affected by tropical storms. Cambodia has sun almost year round. The average temperature is about 27 degrees Celsius; the minimum temperature is about 16 degrees. December and January are the coolest months, whereas the hottest is April.

* The Rainy season :
From June till October 27-35.C (80-95.f)
* The Dry season (cool):
From November till February 17-27.C (80-95.F)
* The Dry season (Hot) :
From March till May 29-38.C (84-100.F)
Environmental Issues

Plants and Animals
Forests cover 53 percent of Cambodia’s land. The densest forests thrive in the mountains and along the southwestern coast. Higher plains and plateaus contain savannas covered with high, sharp grass. Plants growing in Cambodia include rubber, kapok (a tree with seeds that yield a cotton-like fiber), palm, coconut, and banana, all of which are exploited commercially. Wildlife in Cambodia includes elephants, deer, wild ox, panthers, bears, and tigers. Cormorants, cranes, parrots, pheasants, and wild ducks are also found, and poisonous snakes are numerous. Logging and mining activities, along with unregulated hunting, have diminished the country’s wildlife rapidly.

Cambodia National Park Guide

Cambodia National Park Guide

National Park, Cambodia
Cambodia, country in Southeast Asia, is rich in natural and cultural resources which has been considered as the great potential for tourism and economy development. Cambodia covers an area of 181,035 sq km (69,898 sq mi). Most of the country consists of a low-lying alluvial plain that occupies the central part of the country. To the southeast of the plain lies the delta of the Mekong River. Ninety percent of Cambodia’s 12.8 million people live and derive income from the floodplain lowland in the centre and south which occupies less than 30 percent of the country. Most protected areas are relatively isolated and located in areas of low population density. The significant exceptions are the protected areas on the western border of the country in provinces with high populations densities largely due to recent immigration, and the protected areas within Siem Reap Province, including parts of the Tonle Sap Multiple Use Area

On 1 November 1993, King Norodom Sihanouk issued a Royal Decree concerning the Creation and Designation of Protected Areas, resurrecting Cambodia's commitment to developing a national system of protected areas following decades of civil conflict. The Parks were selected as a "natural and scenic area of significance for its scientific, educational and recreational values".

* Phnom Kulen (Holy legendary place of Khmer)
* Kirirom National Park (Pain forest and limpid stream)
* Bokor National Park (1000m high plateau near South Caost)
* Riam National Park (Mangrove swamp and wild animals )

The Ministry of Environment is responsible for management and protection of all national parks in Cambodia. But the parks are threatened by various illegal activities, including charcoal production, hunting fishing and logging. These issues are being addressed through a combination of law enforcement, education and community development programs. Donations to future Park management will be gratefully accepted and can be made at Park headquarters.

Phnom Kulen, SIem Reap
The most sacred mountain in Cambodia, Phnom Kulen consists of thick jungle, a holy waterfall and reams of ancient carvings and temples. The mountain itself represents a linga of which the stream that runs through Siem Reap has its origin.


Kirirom National Park Koh Kong
The park is situated 120 km west of Phnom Penh, in the Kampong Speu province. It covers an area of 35.000 hectares (350 km²) and is estimated to be composed of natural and semi-Kirirom National Parknatural vegetation. The park is a mountain resort (800 m above sea level), known for its pine tree covered hills, water falls and lakes. It was a favourite retreat for King Sihanouk in the 1960s. Unfortunately, the king’s villas, roads and other infrastructures were all destroyed during the Khmer rouge era. The park was declared a national park after the government troops won it back in 1992. The park is only open to visitors since 1997. Visitors are mainly Khmer people coming at the week-end or for holidays.

It’s the only Cambodian park that can be visited on a one day return trip from the Cambodian capital, Phnom Penh or as a stop over on the way to the coast. I visited the national park in 2002. I was doing an internship in Cambodia and I went to Kirirom for a mushroom inspection. Being a scientific mission I had a special permit made by the national park authorities. That allowed me to go anywhere in the park. The Kirirom landscape includes mountains and hills, up to 800 m in altitude, and water sheds and talwegs, where the water is drained to the lower part of the park. The pine trees forest, which is peculiar of this park, is only found between 600 and 800 m altitude, with a clear undergrowth of graminaceous. That’s where Nepenthes smilesii thrives. It grows among low graminaceous on sandstone soil covered with pine needles.

The number of plants you will find is varying in my opinion according to the competition with graminaceous. In some places the last ones are so present that nepenthes are absent. Colour of plants ranges from almost totally green to green with red marks and to totally red. They are rarely all red or all green but generally green with red marks. The biggest specimen I found had 30 cm long pitchers. If you go down to 600 m altitude, you don't find anymore nepenthes and the vegetation is much more dense.

The average annual rainfall in the Kirirom national park is about 2.000 mm. The best time to visit the park is just after the rainy season which occurs between May and October. Since its opening in the late 1990s the park's facilities have improved to attract more visitors. You’ll find the accommodation suiting your budget from the luxury resort to the simple guesthouse. You can also contact travel agencies in Phnom Penh that will arrange day trips to the park. If you wish to visit more than one or two areas, you are better have your own transport (4x4 car or motorbike).

Bokor National Park KamPot
Bokor, a 1000m plateau, is home to a wide variety of animal and plant species, spans 1,400 square kilometers. But the park is now under threat by illegal hunting and logging, and has only 50rangers to protect it. A new conservation project is now underway and gives hope to Bokor's future. Rangers are being trained and equipped to patrol the park and work cooperatively with local communities. This project needs your help, please do not litter in the park. Entrance fees are the only source of income for basic operating costs. Enjoy your visit.

Bokor National Park is located at the southern tip of the Elephant Mountains near the Cambodia Viet nam border. It was first accessed in 1916 and developed later as a famous altitude resort during the French Protectorate and Prince Norodom Sihanouk regime in the 60's. The hill station has been abandon twice in its history, once when the Vietnamese overran the place in the late 40's while fighting for independence against the French, and then again in 1972 when it was overran by the Khmer Rouge.

This Cambodian National Park was founded in 1993 and it consists of untouched jungle, waterfalls, rivers and much more. A fabulous view of both the Cambodian and Vietnamese coast and islands can be seen form the top as it is 1081 meters above sea level. Recently, the park has been receiving funding to focuses on protection, monitoring of wildlife and community out reach programs. Since this program began, poaching of endangered animals and illegal logging has diminished. The Hill Station has only been open to tourist since 1997. It consist of a collection of French colonial buildings (hotel, church, casino, a royal residence etc.) constructed in the 1920's. It now resembles a surreal abandoned mid-western town in an American horror film. This infamous hill station still has an untouched and mysterious feel to it. Bokor hill station founded by French in 1922 for summer resort,
At the present only church and this hotel "Bokor Palace" remained of the past.


Ream National Park Sihanoukville
Ream National Park is 21,000 hectares costal park, which include two islands situated 18 kilometers east of Sihanoukville. Mangrove forest supports a rich diversity of flora and fauna. You can visit the estuary, lowland evergreen forest, sandy beach and so on. Ream National Park is located 18 km from Sihanoukville and a must see while in Southern Cambodian. The park, which has been open since 1993, encompasses 21,000 hectares including 15 000 hectares of terrestrial and 6000 hectares of marine habitats. This Cambodian national park offers secluded beaches, mangroves forests, tropical jungles, 155 different species of birds, monkeys and during the months of December, January and February the infamous white fresh water dolphin.

The Sihanoukville Eco tour includes a boat trip down the Prek Tuk Sap River, through the mangrove forest, until it reaches the sea, before continuing on to Koh Som Poch beach and Thmor Thom Fishing Village. The duration of the boat trip is about 3 hours and on the way you can watch birds, take short jungle walks, swim, sunbathe and snorkel. A short walking tour of the fishing village offers an opportunity to learn about the life of a Cambodian fishing family. The Eco Tour also offers you a jungle trek to Meditation Mountain, which is a place of worship for many Khmers, and offers a great view of the park from the top. You will be guided by one of the park rangers, who will give you information on the flora, fauna and history of the area. The walk takes about 2 hours from start to finish and is relatively easy.

For those people that want more adventure we recomend the Bokor National Park trip which is home to Tigers and trully wild jungle. For those seeking a little less adventure or a more cultural experience we recomend that you check out the Sihanoukville Discovery and the Khmer Cooking class. Back to Top

Virachay National Park Ratanakiri
Virachay National Park is situated 45 kilometres north of Banlung. With a total land area of 332,500 hectares, there are many varieties of plants and trees and many different species of animals and birds to be spotted in the forest.
Services and activities. Visitors can participate in a number of activities with park rangers granting various services to help visitors discover Ream's diverse environment. Park Headquarters is 600m off National Road 4 on Airport Road, opposite the entrance to Keng Kong Airport. at Ma Ou Ranger Station. Boat Trip

* Thmor Tom Beach : $25 for 1 to 4 persons
* Koh Thmei Beach : $35 for 1 to 4 persons
* Koh Ses : $45 for 1 to 4 persons

Boat trips require a ranger guide ($5 for guides)
Extra person needs $5 for each

Jungle Walk

* Meditation Mountain walk : 2 hours
* Toul Creek walks : 2-3 hours
* $2 for 1 person per hou
* Walks require a ranger guide

Phnom Penh City

Phnom Penh City

PHNOM PENH (French Built City)
The capital of the Kingdom of Cambodia, Phnom Penh, is located at the confluence of three rivers - the Mekong, the Bassac and Tonle Sap. The city is divided into three sections - the north, an attractive residential area; the south or the French part of the city with its ministries, banks and colonial houses; and the centre or the heart with its narrow lanes, markets, foods stalls and shops.

Over the past four years, the city has undergone tremendous changes - businesses are springing up constantly and tourism is once again booming. Cambodia has one of the most liberal investment laws to further boost managed to retain its charm and character - cyclos that weave through traffic with ease, broad boulevards, old colonial buildings, parks and green spaces that reminds one of the country's French heritage, and above all its people who always have a smile for you.

A stone's throw away from the Tonle Sap is the royal Palace built on the site of the Banteay Kev, a citadel built in 1813. The Palace grounds contain several buildings: the Throne Room of Prasat Tevea Vinichhay which is used for the coronation of kings, official receptions and traditional ceremonies; the Chan Chhaya Pavilion which is a venue for dance performances; the king's official residence called the Khemarin; the Napoleon Pavilion and the spectacular Silver Pagoda. This pagoda is worth exploring. It owes its name to the 5,000 silver tiles weighing 1kg each which cover the entire floor.


The emerald Buddha sits on a pedestal high atop the dias. In front of the dias stands a life-size Buddha made of solid gold and weighs 75kg. It is decked with precious gems including diamonds, the largest of which is 25 carats. Also on display at the sides are the coronation apparel and numerous miniature Buddha in gold and silver.

The walls surrounding the compound which is the oldest part of the palace, are covered with frescos depicting scenes from the Khmer version of the Ramayana.


INDEPENDENCE MONUMENT:

The monument was built in 1958 to symbolise the independence that Cambodia gained from France in 1953. The French fully abandonned their interests in Indochina following defeat by the Vietnamese at the battle of Dien Bien Phu in May 1954. Independence is marked in Cambodia o­n the 9th November. The monument has a unique and peculiar style and doubles as a memorial to Cambodian patriots who died for their country.

NATIONAL MUSEUM:

The NATIONAL MUSEUM of Cambodia is housed in a graceful terracotta structure of traditional design (built 1917-20) just north of the Royal Palace. It is open Tuesday to Sunday from 8 to 11 am and from 2 to 5 pm; entry is $3. Photography is prohibited inside. The School of Fine Arts (École des Beaux-arts) has its headquarters in a structure behind the main building.

Guides who speak French and English are available, and there is also a booklet - Khmer Art in Stone - available at the front desk for US$3, which gives a rundown with locations of the most important objects on display.

The museum comprises four courtyards which face onto a garden courtyards to the left and straight ahead of the entrance.

WAT PHNOM:

You may also want to check out WAT PHNOM which sits on a tree covered hill about 30m high in the northeast of the city. It is said that the first pagoda was built in 1373 to house four statues of the Buddha deposited here by the Mekong river. It was discovered by a woman named Penh. Thus, the name Phnom Penh, the hill of Penh. The people believe that this temple is powerful in that anyone who makes a wish will have it granted. It is not surprising to see many people coming here to pray for protection or healing. Many bring lotus flowers as offerings for prayers answered.

At the bottom of the hill is a small zoo, but its most endearing residents, the monkeys, live free in the trees. See more...

CHEUNG EK KILLING FIELD:
Between 1975 and 1978,aabout 17,000 men, women, children and infants (including nine westerners), detained and tortured at S-21 prison (now Tuol Sleng Museum), were transported to the extermination to death to avoid wasting precious bullets. See more...

NEW CENTRAL MARKET:

A visit to the markets and market halls is a must as they give an opportunity to be acquainted with the country's local produce and also to buy textiles, antiques, gold and silver jewellery.

The four wings of the yellow coloured Central Market are teeming with numerous stalls selling gold and silver jewellery, antique coins, clothing, clocks, flowers, food, fabrics, shoes and luggage.

TUOL TOM PONG MARKET:

For some good paintings or if you prefer antiques, head fro the Tuol Tom Poong Market also known as the Russian Market. A word of caution though: you need to sharpen your bargaining skills as the prices here can be outrageously high.

Preah Vihear Temple (Cambodia)

The Real History Of Preah Vihear
Temple

Inside Preah Vihear Temple:



Apart of Preah Vihear Temp:



Name: Prasat Preah Vihear
Creator: Suryavarman I and Suryavarman II
Date built: 11th & 12th Centuries CE Primary deity: Shiva
Architecture Style: Banteay Srei style and others
Location: Preah Vihear, Cambodia
Prasat Preah Vihear (Khmer regular script:ប្រាសាទ​ព្រះ​វិហារ​ ,Thai: ปราสาทเขาพระวิหาร: Prasat Khao Phra Viharn) is a Khmer temple situated atop a 525-meter cliff in the Dângrêk Mountains in Cambodia and on the border of Sisaket Province in northeastern Thailand. In 1962, following a serious dispute between Thailand and Cambodia over ownership of the temple, the International Court of Justice in the Hague ruled that it belonged to Cambodia. The adjacent land to the north is under Thailand's control. Affording a view for many kilometers across a plain, Prasat Preah Vihear has the most spectacular setting of all the temples built during the six-century-long Khmer Empire. As a key edifice of the empire's spiritual life, it was supported and modified by successive kings and so bears elements of several architectural styles. Preah Vihear is unusual among Khmer temples in being constructed along a long north-south axis, rather than having the conventional rectangular plan with orientation toward the east. The temple gives its name to Cambodia's Preah Vihear province, in which is is located, as well as the Khao Phra Wihan National Park in Sisaket Province, Thailand, through which the temple is most easily accessible.

• Access

The temple can be approached from Kantharalak district, Sisaket Province of Thailand. Cambodia allows day-trip access to the temple on a visa-free basis from Thailand. Cambodia imposes an entrance fee of US$5 or 200 baht for foreigners (as of 2006, reduced to 50 baht for nationals of Thailand), plus a fee of 5 baht for processing a copy of the passport. In addition, Thailand imposes an access fee of 400 baht for entering the National Park.

• Size

The temple complex runs 800m along a north-south axis, and consists essentially of a causeway and steps rising up the hill towards the sanctuary, which sits on the clifftop at the southern end of the complex (120m above the northern end of the complex, 525m above the Cambodian plain and 625m above sea level). Although this structure is very different from the temple mountains found at Angkor, it serves the same purpose as a stylised representation of Mount Meru, the home of the gods.

The approach to the sanctuary is punctuated by five gopuras (these are conventionally numbered from the sanctuary outwards, so gopura five is the first to be reached by visitors). Each of the gopuras before the courtyards is reached by a set of steps, and so marks a change in height which increases their impact. The gopuras also block a visitor's view of the next part of the temple until he passes through the gateway, making it impossible to see the complex as a whole from any one point.

The fifth gopura, in the Koh Ker style, retains traces of the red paint with which it was once decorated, although the tiled roof has now disappeared. The fourth gopura is later, from the Khleang/Baphuon periods, and has on its southern outer pediment, "one of the masterpieces of Preah Vihear" (Freeman, p. 162): a depiction of the Churning of the Sea of Milk. The third is the largest, and is also flanked by two halls. The sanctuary is reached via two successive courtyards, in the outer of which are two libraries.

• Ancient History

View from our Cambodia border to Thai border in the early morning .




Construction of the first temple on the site began in the early 9th century; both then and in the following centuries it was dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva in his manifestations as the mountain gods Sikharesvara and Bhadresvara. The earliest surviving parts of the temple, however, date from the Koh Ker period in the early 10th century, when the empire's capital was at the city of that name. Today, elements of the Banteay Srei style of the late 10th century can be seen, but most of the temple was constructed during the reigns of the kings Suryavarman I (1002–1050) and Suryavarman II (1113–1150). An inscription found at the temple provides a detailed account of Suryavarman II studying sacred rituals, celebrating religious festivals and making gifts, including white parasols, golden bowls and elephants, to his spiritual advisor, the aged Brahman Divakarapandita. The Brahman himself took an interest in the temple, according to the inscription, donating to it a golden statue of a dancing Shiva.

• International dispute over ownership

In modern times, ownership of the temple was disputed by Thailand and Cambodia, leading to an international crisis and a decision by the International Court of Justice, commonly known as the World Court, in The Hague.

The court proceedings focused not on questions of cultural heritage or on which state was the successor to the Khmer Empire but on technicalities of border demarcation work carried out in the early 20th Century by Thailand, then called Siam, and the French colonial authorities then ruling Cambodia. In 1904, the two sides formed a joint border commission. In the vicinity of the temple, the group was tasked to work under the principal that the border would follow the watershed line of the Dângrêk mountain range. In 1907, after survey work, Siam requested that French officers draw up a map to show the border’s precise location. The resulting map, which was sent to Thai authorities, showed Preah Vihear as being on the Cambodian side.

In 1954, Thai forces occupied the temple following the withdrawal of French troops from newly independent Cambodia. Cambodia protested and in 1959 asked the World Court to rule that the temple lay in Cambodian territory. The case became a volatile political issue in both countries. Diplomatic relations were severed, and threats of force voiced by both governments.

Arguing in the Hague for Cambodia was former U.S. secretary of state Dean Acheson, while Thailand’s legal team included a former British attorney general, Sir Frank Soskice. Cambodia contended that the map showing the temple as being on Cambodian soil was the authoritative document. Thailand argued that the map was invalid, was not an official document of the border commission, and violated the commission’s working principle that the border would follow the watershed line, which would place the temple in Thailand. If Thailand had not protested the map earlier, the Thai side said, it was because Thai authorities had practical possession of the temple, due to the great difficulty of scaling the cliff from the Cambodian side, or had not understood that the map was wrong.

On June 15, 1962, the court ruled 9 to 3 that the temple belonged to Cambodia and, by a vote of 7 to 5, that Thailand must return any antiquities such as sculpture that it had removed from the temple. In its decision, the court noted that over the five decades after the map was devised, the Siamese/Thai authorities did not object in various international forums to the map’s depiction of the temple’s location. Nor did they object when a French colonial official received the Siamese scholar and government figure Prince Damrong at the temple in 1930. Thailand had accepted and benefited from other parts of the border treaty, the court ruled. With these and other acts, it said, Thailand had accepted the map and therefore Cambodia was the owner of the temple. The court declined to take up the question of whether the border as shown in the 1907 map corresponded to the watershed line.

Thailand reacted angrily. It announced it would boycott meetings of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization, with Thai officials saying this step was to protest a U.S. bias toward Cambodia in the dispute. As evidence, Thai officials cited the pro-Cambodia vote of an American judge on the court and Acheson’s role as Cambodia’s advocate; the U.S. government replied that Acheson was merely acting as a private attorney, engaged by Cambodia. Mass demonstrations were staged in Thailand protesting the ruling.

Thailand eventually backed down. In January 1963, Cambodia formally took possession of the site in a colorful ceremony attended by close to 1,000 people, many of whom had made the arduous climb up the cliff from the Cambodian side. A fit Prince Sihanouk, Cambodia’s leader, bounded up the cliff in less than an hour, paused to sip lemonade, then made offerings to Buddhist monks. In the ceremony, he made a gesture of conciliation, announcing that all Thais would be able to visit the temple without visas, and that Thailand was free to keep antiquities that it had taken away from the site.

However, Thailand and Cambodia agreed to separate Prasat Preah Vihear into two sides, which are the Thai and Cambodian sides. The entrance is in Thailand, but if you enter from Cambodia you have to climb the cliff.

The following information was posted online by Thailand's Thai News Agency on 24 May 2008, reflecting the current status of discuss the status of the dispute between Thailand and Cambodia. "BANGKOK, May 24, 2008 (TNA) -- Cambodia has agreed to register only the ancient Preah Vihear temple ruins themselves as a UNESCO World Heritage site, leaving the surrounding area disputed by Thailand and Cambodia unresolved, and to prepare a new map showing the ruins for consideration by UNESCO and Thailand, Thai Foreign Minister Noppadon Pattama said Saturday. Mr. Noppadon, Cambodian Deputy Prime Minister Sok An and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) officials met in Paris for 10 hours on Thursday. The Thai foreign minister told a press conference that the meeting was held in a friendly atmosphere. The Cambodian government agreed to limit its registration of the Preah Vihear temple only as a World Heritage site, and would submit new map of temple premises to the Thai government and UNESCO for consideration on June 6. Thailand supports Cambodia in registering the ancient temple ruins as a World Heritage site, Mr. Noppadon said, indicating that he would forward the outcome of the meeting to Prime Minister Samak Sundaravej and related government agencies as soon as possible . Agreements reached at the meeting were contained in a joint communiqué and must be approved first by both the Thai and Cambodian governments, he said. The revised map, prepared by the Phnom Penh government and submitted when it applied for registering Preah Vihear as a World Heritage site last year, must be studied again whether it was appropriate, said Mr. Noppadon. Thailand earlier held that the dispute over the disputed 4.6 sq. km. area adjoining the temple ruins has yet to be settled. Historically, Thailand and Cambodia have both laid claim to the temple, which sits astride the border in Thailand's Si Sa Ket, but easy access is only through Thailand. The World Court ruled in 1962 that the temple belonged to Cambodia.

• Civil war and present times

Civil war began in Cambodia in 1970; the temple's location high atop a cliff served to make it readily defensible militarily. Soldiers loyal to the Lon Nol government in Phnom Penh continued to hold it long after the plain below fell to communist forces. Tourists were able to visit from the Thai side during the war. The Khmer Rouge captured Phnom Penh in April 1975, but the soldiers at Preah Vihear continued to hold out after the collapse of their government. The Khmer Rouge made several unsuccessful attempts to capture the temple, then finally succeeded on May 22, 1975 by shelling the cliff, scaling it and routing the defenders, Thai officials reported at the time. It was said to be the last place in Cambodia to fall to the Khmer Rouge.

Full-scale war began again in Cambodia in December 1978 when the Vietnamese army invaded to overthrow the Khmer Rouge. Khmer Rouge troops retreated to border areas. In January, the Vietnamese reportedly attacked Khmer Rouge troops holed up in the temple, but there were no reports of damage to it. Large numbers of Cambodian refugees entered Thailand after the invasion. In June 1979, Thai security forces forcibly expelled tens of thousands of them back into Cambodia in the vicinity of Preah Vihear. Unknown numbers were killed by landmines, gunfire and exposure; the government that Vietnam installed in Phnom Penh put the number of fatalities at more than 300.

Guerilla warfare continued in Cambodia through the 1980s and well into the 1990s, hampering access to Preah Vihear. The temple opened briefly to the public in 1992, only to be re-occupied the following year by Khmer Rouge fighters. In December 1998, the temple was the scene of negotiations by which several hundred Khmer Rouge soldiers, said to be the guerrilla movement's last significant force, agreed to surrender to the Phnom Penh government.

The temple opened again to visitors from the Thai side at the end of 1998; Cambodia completed the construction of a long-awaited access road up the cliff in 2003.

Since the Cambodian government decided to nominate the site for inclusion into the UNESCO World Heritage Site list, tensions between the two countries on this issue reignited.Thailand has stated that they do not object to the application for the temple complex, but that Cambodia also listed disputed areas around the temple when applying to put the temple on the list.